International Journal of Instruction January 2010 ● Vol.3, No.1
ISSN: 1694-609X ● www.e-iji.net
SCIENCE PRODUCTION IN IRANIAN EDUCATIONAL
SYSTEM BY THE USE OF CRITICAL THINKING
Seyed Ahmad Hashemi*
Ph.D, Student, Science &Research Branch, Islamic Azad University (IAU),
Tehran, Iran
hmd_hashemi@yahoo.com
Ezatolah Naderi, Ali Shariatmadari, Maryam Seif Naraghi
Prof., Science & Research Branch, Islamic Azad University (IAU), Tehran, Iran
Monireh Mehrabi
Bushehr Branch, Islamic Azad University (IAU), Bushehr, Iran
Growth and advancement in educational systems are the most important
characteristics of the present societies. This phenomenon, especially in recent
decades, has become an important and sensitive issue in developing countries.
The role of educational systems in the process of growth and persistent
advancement of countries is accepted by everybody and education is regarded as
a main base of advancement and progress. The outcome of this growth is
changing the educational systems into learners' organizations. The most
observable and effective character in educational system is the thinking element.
Thinking and acquiring new information and the method of thinking and learning
are the most important characteristics of human being and from other perspective,
in new approaches; the great attention has been paid to teaching and learning as
well. For acquiring this goal, paying attention to critical thinking is one of the
fundamental phenomena and dimensions. In this article first surveyed the critical
thinking from the view point of many experts and then with the emphasis on the
benefits of critical thinking, presented a framework for its implementation in Iran
educational system.
Key Words: science production, education, critical thinking, learning, teaching
* Corresponding Author. Tel: +98-782-522-5057, Fax: +98-782-522-1232.
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INTRODUCTION
In those educational systems that don't pay great attention to critical thinking,
the ultimate production is noncreative and narrow-minded students. These
students may cause many obstacles on the way of spiritual and material
progress. Iranian educational system always tries to accumulate the learner's
mind with data and information instead of creating thoughtful individuals. This
process is totally similar to a computer with the task of storing information.
Critical thinking is of the most effective methods in transferring thought. The
cultural advancement is the result of critical thinking. Let's not forget it's only
education that causes human beings to leave narrow-mindedness behind and
invariably to accept deep understanding and free choices. The education, itself,
enhances the ability of human being for a higher understanding of the cases
around. Those countries that understood the importance of critical thinking with
a complex planning have provided the basement for its expansion as, they
know, paying attention to the education of critical thinking will guaranty the
progress of their countries from the economic and political and social and …
matters.
Concept of critical thinking
One of the problems and barriers in training of critical thinking is the lack of a
definition that can be agreeable to public in this field. A group have been
defined critical thinking as an ability to recognize and regulate the matters,
employing deductive and inductive reasoning, ability to extract the obtained
information of different resources, supporting the individuals' reasonable
conclusion and ability to distinct between realities and beliefs (Glasman et al.,
1984).
Others freely have limited critical thinking to a high level thought like
"reinforcement and continuity of cognitive activities for solving a complex
problem" (Wisconsin center for educational research news, 1985).
Ennis believe that thought is critical only when a thinker exactly attempts to
analyze subjects and to follow valuable evidences, and finally to reach to an
intellectual judgment and good results. He considers the goal of critical thinking
as educating the human beings the creature that is far from personal spites and,
in contrast, is subtle and explicit (Ennis, 1985).
Beyer, in his books, has mentioned the critical thinking, as a collection of skills
(Beyer, 1985).
Kneedler, like Beyer, points to specific skills in analysis and description of
critical thinking (Kneedler, 1985).
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International Journal of Instruction, January 2010 ● Vol.3, No.1
Paul (1992), one of the number one experts, defines critical thinking as
following: the art of thinking about your thought, when you think to improve
your thought, ie say that brighter, correcter and more explainable (Smith -
Stoner, 1999,).
In Jafi's (1994) view, critical thinking discovers thought process with the help
of rules, that mean, both purposeful deep thinking, and testing documents and
logic. The others and we use them, too (Johnson, 2002).
Lipman, in his new pattern, surveyed high level thinking in mind. High-level
thinking, is thinking that has two characteristics: 1.Critical characteristic, 2.
Creative characteristic. Critical thinking in essence is cognitive and come into
the basis of criteria. But creative thinking is for values, and directs to meaning
(Lipman, 1991).
In view of Johnson, generalizability, is the final aim of education, and this goal
exists out of class and is obtained via critical thinking and by social interaction
(Johnson, 1995).
Critical thinking deals with the opposing views and assumptions and is not
biased toward a specific direction in advance (Blair, 2000).
Critical thinking is a constructive and positive process which might be caused
by negative as well as positive events and is manifested in an individual’s
behavior in different ways (Lunney, 2003)
Review of literature
Critical thinking is a necessary skill in promoting the students' thoughts. Critical
thinking is one of the new models in education system. This model pays special
attention to the development of individual and social features of people so that
mental power and social responsibilities will be fostered among the learners.
The final goal of education is generalization which is achieved through critical
thinking and social interactions, out of classrooms (Johnson, 1995, p38). This
form of thinking helps a person to think deeply about the issues and criticize
education system through true comprehension of the current issues. The
learners' discussion is based on thinking and the learners understand the subject
by thinking, and analyze the problems presented to them through asking
suitable questions (Girle, 1991).
Dewey believes that schools should be based on people cooperation and its
result should be training citizens (Haynes, 2002). In critical thinking strategy,
the creation of thoughts, their expression and putting them to practice are
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International Journal of Instruction, January 2010 ● Vol.3, No.1
emphasized as a fundamental characteristic of judgment. Critical thinking is
important in both individual and social aspects.
The societies which believe in democracy as a social philosophy which
determines the behavior of their people provide an opportunity for selection and
logical decision making for them. The systems which also believe in
educational democracy respect the decision making power of people for their
citizenship life. Critical thinking is the way and model of people’s looking at
the importance and use of thought in their life (Duchscher, 1999). Overloading
students' minds with materials and handwritten texts is not so important today,
but rather the learning process and the learners' activities during the training
period are fundamental in educational democracy.
The main purpose of education is producing thoughtful people and the final
result of education must be the contemplative mind. Critical thinking is a
controllable and purposeful judgment which pays logical attention to proofs,
fields, concepts, methods and criteria (Harkreder, 2000). The final product of
the educational systems which do not pay attention to this issue is a noncreative
person, and it is considered to be a serious problem in the material and
spiritual development of the country.
Advantages of critical thinking:
Critical thinking has many advantages and can be helpful in individual growing
in different field that will be investigated as following:
1. Critical thinking and moral development:
With acceptance of this point that critical thinking is the background of a better,
deeper and wider cognition, one can easily jump to this conclusion that critical
thinking frees human from blindly following moral rules, and guides us to such
a position that comes nearer to Kant's opinion based on criterion selection and
moral rules with freedom and with the intention of respect to it. Unfortunately
many individuals submit to moral problems, only with the aim of reaching the
profits or escaping from negative charges of moral matters abandonment,
whereas such actions are without moral values. By accepting this view, clear
critical thinking necessity for moral development is more obvious than ever;
meanwhile by teaching it, individuals learn to respect to other ideas, take action
to criticism, analyze and evaluate their opinions and even their owns. Even take
a look at all things under the protection of criticism, don't admit any things
without full investigating and assessment. In this view, if an individual reaches
moral rules and goes to it, that action will consist of better moral value.
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International Journal of Instruction, January 2010 ● Vol.3, No.1
2. Critical thinking and social development
Criticism and review of others ideas, are the generator of many positive cultures
like: respect to the others' ideas, existence of difference taste and thinking and
not receiving reflections absolutely and ….When graduated from high school,
the students should be able to do some homework as the society expects legally.
The society even expects them to behave intellectually and morally, and to
follow valuable goals for themselves. These results can be trained through
critical thinking training and should be the basis of curriculum planning.
Peak of critical thinking is reaching the self-evaluation, and real critical thinker
is the person who not only does review other ideas successfully and views in the
best way, but also can embark to criticism, review and construction of his ideas
and beliefs in a proper way. It's obvious that reaching this level of critical
thinking requires passage of lower stages based on criticism of other actions and
opinions and this is not easily obtained except under the protection of social
interactions. Interactions, either positive or negative, can provide a background
for individuals' social developments; because when individuals follow allchannel
criticism and review of others actions and thought those matters are
making a generator of all-channel development, especially, their social
development. It causes them to learn some thing and promote their social
personalities. Furthermore, when individuals review other opinions and
thoughts, they should transfer this criticism to them because this action causes
the individuals to promote their social development.
3. Critical thinking and cognitive development
Lipman is one of those philosophers that emphasize on education's cognitive
aspect. He divides the cognitive criteria to four groups: exploratory, reasoning,
information organization, and translation, and he believes the judgment and the
reasoning power grow in individuals by the use of these criteria in different
conditions (Lipman, 1988).
It is clear that taking the risk is an inevitable part of our daily life, and this
matter requires that the individual evaluates probability of happening future
events. Because of non-cognitive development as a result of not using the
critical thinking, problems, losses and most unpleasant charges occur in
individual life. Whereas, with training the critical thinking, we will observe
reason improvement and so destroying at least a part of negative charges arising
for incorrect decision. Indeed, with exploitation of critical thinking formulas
and techniques, pupils learns to promote reasoning power, and calculating
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power and amount of probability of a matter, that is arising of
individuals' cognitive development. In other words, with exploitation of
critical thinking, individual increase his perceptive and analytic power
little by little. To become a criticism thinker, a comprehension of logical
norms and merit in development and debates analysis should be obtained.
Plans of critical thinking conform to this interpretation, emphasize on
forming creditable deductive arguments and cognition of wrong reasons
and not using them.
Skillful use of critical thinking enables us to throw away these non-reflective
habits, and nearly overcoming them is an answer to this question that why the
growth of the skills of critical thinking is so valuable? Only the teacher that
knows what critical thinking is and encounters with it purposefully can help the
youth in critical thinking skills. So, in order to make Iranian students familiar
with critical thinking and to provide a useful background for a critical society,
critical thinking in questions and content of different lessons, especially social
science should be paid attention. If we don't pay attention to this subject and
neglect it, students will be led to imitation and passively acceptation
preservation learning and in this case we will be deprived of having criticizer
society and citizens and be deprived of critical thought.
4. Critical thinking and science development:
Education systems that comprehend the requirement of critical thinking creation
are settler to this problem that science growth and development is possible
besides attention to critical thinking in science centers. Science development
works when individuals review problems with the attention to the mental power
and besides this examination can obtain new thoughts of those. In addition to
the critical thinking, pupils consider the matters with more accuracy and this
order prepares a background of science development: and this matter, provides
more accuracy background for individuals that are thinkers and clear-sighted,
because they understand this point that their thoughts are to be criticized. Thus
one of critical thinking's opinions is the science development and this matter
obtains a background for science center's improvement and dynamism and at
last leads to science production.
5. Critical thinking and mental development
One of the countries retardation factors is inattention to critical culture creation
in society. In retarded societies no attention is paid to the creation of critical
thinking in pupils, and also individuals resist against the other opinions and
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International Journal of Instruction, January 2010 ● Vol.3, No.1
don't tolerate them. Paying attention to the critical thinking makes a background
generator for the society mental relaxation and individuals' mental development
against other opinions so that, individuals with respect to other individuals,
review their opinions and survey them with tolerance.
Education and critical thinking
The use of critical thinking in education began when critical thinking became a
synonym of logic. Dewey mentions judgment and hesitation as the nature and
the essence of critical thinking, and knows it willing to active, permanent and
subtle survey of opinion and knowledge.
Critical thinking is the thinking skill, and is the learning tool that trains the
pupils with logic and reason art, and increases their readiness for encountering
out of class positions.
Experts of education and curriculum planning recommend training, manner
reinforcement and science attitudes instead of science realities' transfer, and pay
attention to process instead of science realities reproduction. They believe that
students should pay attention to the manner of obtaining science realities in
place of obtaining science realities (Matthews, 1994).
In an enriched educational environment, an individual should investigate freely
and thoughtfully without force. He should unify his/her acquired subjects and
walk for elevation. Unfortunately, most of the schools not only forget such
mission, but also walk in the opposite direction (Macdonald & Wolfson, 1973).
If the student is active in the learning process, and feels he/she needs learning
and perceives the relation with the other matters his understanding becomes
permissible and consequently he/she acquires materials deeper.
Dewey knows concentration on occasions and position the only direct way for
learning and teaching methods improvement. He names problematic situation
the factor that causes thought that is conditions that encounter pupils with doubt
and vagueness, because till human beings don't encounter doubt, their thought
won't be persuaded to stimulation. Thoughts test with beliefs evaluation and in
other words with a critical look to problems lead to a deeper perception and
understanding of matter, and whatever is learned by pupils by the help of
experiment and assessment, increase possibility of better learning and better
transmission of learning.
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Critical theory emphasizes on human's freedom dependency and autonomy to
social development, historical stages and human's changes. According to critical
theory, freedom situations can't be searched only in individual's education, but it
depends on social conditions that are acquired via political fighting together.
According to this definition, explanatory means questioning about authority and
sovereignty of the society that hasn't any intellectual reason and explanation and
doesn't persist to freedom and maturity as the basic aims of human's
development.
Iranian education system's emphasis on knowledge transmission and learning is
limited to memorizing materials, because of the formulation of plans subjectmaters,
methods of formulation and educational assessment and etc. The main
problem that Iranian education system encounters is the goal-centered being
instead of being process-centered.
The contents of many text-books are presented vaguely. Ambiguity is one of the
cultural characteristics of a society that thought and critical thinking isn't basic
in it. When critical thought is well trained, it leads to doubt, so prepares
curiosity and different ideas and statement about subject; criticism begins with
doubt and criticizer tries to awaken the doubt to make the base of certainty firm.
Many learning theories support the existence of critical thinking in education.
Cognitive theoreticians, look to students as active processors of information in
learning process, those who experience and seek the information for problemsolving.
They employ whatever they recognize useful for solving new problems
in the structure of theirs mind. Instead of passively being affected by the
environment, they actively select, exercise or ignore it (Wolffolk, 1990).
In addition to cognitive theories, metacognitive approaches support
reinforcement and fostering of critical thinking in education process. In
metacognitive view, student should have active control in his/her mental
process, and regulate and reconstruct his/her mental activities. In metacognitive
thinking "conditional knowledge" that is one of the most basic factors in
metacognition, has been presented as a component of the critical thinking in
curriculum planning (Marzano et al., 1988).
One of the theories that protects critical thinking, and has root in cognitive
thinking, is constructionism. Philosophy foundations of such an approach stand
for fallibility of epistemology. On the basis of such approach, all knowledge of
human is fallible, for limitation and relativity of human perceptions (Cobern,
1992).
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International Journal of Instruction, January 2010 ● Vol.3, No.1
Constructivists, like cognitive psychologist, look at learning as a perception
process, resulted from experience, and believe that executives of lesson plans
should provide a situation that students, via reasoning debates which facilitate
and accelerate interaction and analysis action, do critical thinking (Zahorik,
1995).
Concentration to students' metacognition and self-regulatory, learning in an
enriched environment and valid to problem-solving, consistently are settled in
the center of constructionism approach (Cobern, 1992).
Researchers show this reality that still many teachers consume most of their
instruction-time to speaking or asking questions that seek abstract reminding of
simple science realities and only one percent of consumed time in class is
allocated to questions that need thoughtful answer (Sirotnik, 1983).
One of the ways that lead to critical thinking is problem-solving method in
group-work form. This method in group work form will reinforce critical
thinking skills of students in the interaction classroom in an active atmosphere.
In this method, skills like observation, comparison, organization of information,
control and determination of variables, hypothesis testing and formulation,
analysis, inference, assessment and judgment are reinforced. In addition to
mentioned skills, active learning, reasonable thinking, tolerance of complexity,
attitude about temporary being of all knowledge, and tolerance of each other
views are properties of problem-solving and group-work (Joyce & Marsha,
1986).
Now, with regard to the importance of educational system in the new
millennium to which human life development is related, it is essential for this
matter to adopt foundational plans. One of the main phenomena for this matter
is critical thinking.
Results of Tim's international studies show that the Iranian students in a
collection of 286 questions and operation test in proportional to our lesson plans
comparatively are in an upper level for comprehension and memorization. But
about skills like making theories, data analysis, problem-solving, using the
instruments and scientific methods or doing research and investigation about
nature are in a lower level.
So, granting existence for education without attention to critical thinking is a
meaningless idea, and the training that in its real meaning should establish a
field of individual's evolution is impossible without critical thinking.
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A comparison between traditional education and education based on
critical thinking
In traditional instruction, the teacher is in charge of main activities, and he/she,
actively, presents organized knowledge and information, and decides how to
transfer them to pupils' mind, and students should memorize relevant
information passively, and remember it and answer to the questions on the
assessment time. In this way emphasis is on subject-matters, and often, teacher
and the text book are real information resources.
Jean Piajet, after surveying and criticizing different methods knows active
method as the best method and for this reason this method is compatible with
what is acceptable in educational psychology. The active method facilitates
fostering new goals of education which are training creative and researcher
individuals.
In education based on critical thinking, teacher plays the role of a guide and
facilitator, and students are active. They look for information from resources
other than teacher and text book; they emphasize on method instead of contents,
and don't volume perceived information in first level, and it isn't necessary to
memorize subject-matters without comprehending and perceiving them.
Thinkers know the dependency of traditional instruction to meaningless
statements, and reliance on habits, instead of thoughts as the source of wrong
education. They believe that education should be established on exchange of
thoughts, participation, and discussion, so that it could lead the individuals to
the critical thinking.
Considering the importance of critical thinking the researchers have
investigated the use of critical thinking in high school social science textbooks
based on Fars Province (Iran) teachers' attitudes in order to present a model for
textbook development. To achieve this goal, the use of the following skills in
the social science textbooks was analyzed: reasoning, questioning, assessment
of examples and statements, group work, interpretation, true judgment about
issues, analysis and evaluation, logicality, and explicitness.
The result showed that the teachers of the Social Studies Textbook evaluated
assessment of examples and statements, and analysis and evaluation skills as
not satisfactory respectively. They evaluated the other skills as fairly
satisfactory. Teachers of Sociology Textbook 1 evaluated explicitness,
assessment of examples and statements, analysis and evaluation, and
interpretation skills as not satisfactory respectively. They also evaluated other
skills as fairly satisfactory. Teachers of Sociology Textbook 2 evaluated
explicitness as not satisfactory, logicality as satisfactory, and other skills as
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International Journal of Instruction, January 2010 ● Vol.3, No.1
fairly satisfactory. As it is shown in the following Table in all three books the
status of the skills of critical thinking were analyzed as fairly satisfactory to
unsatisfactory.
Table: The Status Of Skills Based On Their Use In Social Science Textbooks
Rank Skill Status Textbook
1 Logicality
2 Questioning
3 Group work
4 True judgment about issues
5 Reasoning
6 Interpretation
7 Explicitness
Fairly
satisfactory
8 Analysis and evaluation
9 Assessment of examples and statements Unsatisfactory
Social studies
1 Logicality
2 Questioning
3 True judgment about issues
4 Reasoning
5 Group work
Fairly
satisfactory
6 Interpretation
7 Analysis and evaluation
8 Assessment of examples and statements
9 Explicitness
Unsatisfactory Sociology (1)
1 Logicality satisfactory
2 Questioning
3 Analysis and evaluation
4 Reasoning
5 True judgment about issues
6 Interpretation
7 Assessment of examples and statements
8 Group work
Fairly
satisfactory
9 Explicitness Unsatisfactory
Sociology (2)
Manner of classroom organization for encouragement and critical thinking
creation
1. Creating equivalence between content and teaching process
If teacher's effort in learning process is finishing books and making students
ready for final exam, this method will prevent happening the other instructional
actions in class such as critical thinking education.
2. Creating equivalence between lecture and interaction
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The teacher, by using the other suitable methods for thought exchange in class,
should make equivalence between his/her lecture and interaction of students via
encouragement, argument and question.
3. Organization and designing of physical environment of the classroom
Educational environment has a very fundamental role in fostering critical
thinking skills. Organization and arrangement of class for providing opportunity
for interaction is very hard but effective. Five basic tips for this matter to be
more effective come below:
A: Begin each session with a question:
For teaching, first start with an exciting question or problem. That attracts the
students attention to the lesson.
B: Use silence to encourage the pondering:
In addition to problem-solving method, discussion, conversation and even
exchange of attractive beliefs, silence can help critical thinking development
C: Arrange the class environment so as to cause interaction:
Physical conditions of classroom are so important in establishment of suitable
environment for critical thinking. Classroom environment should be designed
so that it facilitate that can exchange of the thoughts. Setting chairs and tables in
a direct line and behind of each other, makes students' collective-thought and
thought exchange impossible. Teachers can reform classroom physical
condition by use of imagination and a little attempt and establish atmosphere
that causes students to exchange their thoughts.
In small and uncrowded classes the chairs and tables can be arranged in form of
circles, semicircle, square, or u-form (horseshoe), and in large classes students
can be divided to small groups. In this kind of class organization, the main goal
is for students to see each other, argue and discuss with each other.
D: Add to the class time, if possible:
Critical thinking fosters when students have enough time for thought and deep
thinking. Classroom will not be effective and useful with a limited time for
fostering thought. Long-term classes are better and more effective than shortterm
classes for training techniques of critical thinking:
So, the teachers should try to add to the class time, so that students can obtain
this opportunity to analyze information, exchange thought and survey.
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International Journal of Instruction, January 2010 ● Vol.3, No.1
E: Establish a receptive environment:
The attempt for encouraging students to discuss and exchange thought requires
a receptive environment. That is, where students feel security in, and teachers
can rely and trust each other. Teachers should listen to student's statements with
respect and accuracy. They can reject student's incorrect statements reasonably
and documentarily. But never should reject the students themselves or taunt
them. Teachers should grant the same worth for students' correct or incorrect
statements in thought exchange and discussion process because they are the
production of their thoughts and will provide a field for their thought dynamic
and further thought.
Stages of teaching method performance based on critical thinking
First stage: matter comprehension and perception: In this stage, we try to help
pupil comprehend the matter given. Because comprehension and perception are
the main keys for other activities in critical thinking process.
Second stage: Information judgment: In this stage, the students are encouraged
to present some information based on their designed questions and judge this
information in reality.
Third stage: Applying judged information: In this stage, the results of the two
previous activities are put to use, that means they employ that group of thoughts
that have been judged and produced.
Fourth stage: Presentation of feedback and complementary strategy: In the final
stage, the teacher gives a feedback to the students about the manner of their
operations.
CONCLUSION
Critical thinking presents a new pattern based on thought in education and
contains important and centered concepts and tenacious, wisdom or rationality,
and democracy (related to social characteristic). This pattern not only
emphasize on critical thinking importance, but also on creative thought and
thought with interest. This plan emphasizes on creation, stating, act and feel as a
main circulation of judgment and distinction. Critical thinking is important in
two sides: personal and social aspects.
In the light of personal, since human has authority, he necessarily, should
decide for appointing his direction in life, that his life with this decisions will
take form, in other words, in this unrepeatable life he should give himself
opportunities for selection. Good selection gives us the possibility to have a
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International Journal of Instruction, January 2010 ● Vol.3, No.1
better position and irresponsibly in selections, and draw us to a naught. For
attaining a subtle selection, a kind of thinking is required, and should search
different opinions, colorful suggestion and various temptations with critical
thinking. Critical thinking helps us not to admit any speech blindly and without
reason; and place a question sign opposite of colorful models that are inspired
smartly. Critical thinking helps us to be reasonable and civilized citizens; other
usage that this thinking has in society, is establishing a critical morale in people.
Critical thinking by establishing this morale goes under the service of social
discipline and critical morale in citizens becomes a guarantee for rule and order
in a society.
In philosophers, psychologists and teachers' ideas, critical and wise thinking
don't need to be explained and their importance is clear in education. Although
it isn't difficult to find most realistic reasons in this field, certainly success of
every democratic system depends on the ability of people on analyzing the
matters and adopting the reflective decisions.
Some suggestions will be presented here for better use of critical thinking in
Iran educational system:
1. Developing of active learning methods in the classrooms.
2. Writing the different books in instructional program divisions on the basis of
critical thinking indexes.
3. Paying attention to thought and opinions of the critical thinking field
thinkers, in compilation of curriculum plans.
4. Acquainting all teachers with instructional program periods with the help of
the method of critical thinking and the in-service training in this field.
5. Paying attention to the experiences of the different countries in the field of
developing the critical thinking in education.
Providing real situations in classrooms to transmit learning
Planning and creating learning environments to develop thinking in learners
Providing situations for the students in order to express their thoughts and ideas
Developing self-awareness and self-adjustment skills in the students
Teachers should be consultants instead of transmitters of information and lesson
skills
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International Journal of Instruction, January 2010 ● Vol.3, No.1
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تاريخ: 13 دي 1389
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